Do Spectrum Install Their Internet Service In Rural Areas?
Read about the history of the cyberspace, from its 1950s origins to the Www'southward explosion in popularity in the tardily 1990s and the 'dotcom bubble'.
The origins of the internet
The origins of the internet are rooted in the USA of the 1950s. The Cold State of war was at its height and huge tensions existed between North America and the Soviet Marriage. Both superpowers were in possession of deadly nuclear weapons, and people lived in fear of long-range surprise attacks. The U.s.a. realised it needed a communications system that could not be affected by a Soviet nuclear attack.
At this time, computers were large, expensive machines exclusively used by military scientists and academy staff.
These machines were powerful but limited in numbers, and researchers grew increasingly frustrated: they required access to the engineering science, but had to travel great distances to use information technology.
To solve this problem, researchers started 'time-sharing'. This meant that users could simultaneously admission a mainframe computer through a series of terminals, although individually they had only a fraction of the reckoner'due south actual ability at their command.
The difficulty of using such systems led various scientists, engineers and organisations to research the possibility of a large-scale computer network.
Who invented the internet?
No ane person invented the net. When networking technology was first adult, a number of scientists and engineers brought their research together to create the ARPANET. Later, other inventors' creations paved the way for the web as nosotros know information technology today.
• PAUL BARAN (1926–2011)
An engineer whose piece of work overlapped with ARPA'due south enquiry. In 1959 he joined an American recollect tank, the RAND Corporation, and was asked to enquiry how the United states of america Air Force could keep control of its armada if a nuclear set on ever happened. In 1964 Baran proposed a communication network with no central command point. If one bespeak was destroyed, all surviving points would still be able to communicate with each other. He called this a distributed network.
• LAWRENCE ROBERTS (1937–2018)
Principal scientist at ARPA, responsible for developing figurer networks. Paul Baran's idea appealed to Roberts, and he began to work on the creation of a distributed network.
• LEONARD KLEINROCK (1934–)
An American scientist who worked towards the cosmos of a distributed network aslope Lawrence Roberts.
• DONALD DAVIES (1924–2000)
A British scientist who, at the same fourth dimension every bit Roberts and Kleinrock, was developing like technology at the National Physical Laboratory in Middlesex.
• BOB KAHN (1938–) AND VINT CERF (1943–)
American computer scientists who developed TCP/IP, the ready of protocols that governs how data moves through a network. This helped the ARPANET evolve into the internet we use today. Vint Cerf is credited with the first written use of the word 'internet'.
When asked to explain my role in the creation of the internet, I generally use the example of a urban center. I helped to build the roads—the infrastructure that gets things from point A to point B.
—Vint Cerf, 2007
• PAUL MOCKAPETRIS (1948–) AND JON POSTEL (1943–98)
Inventors of DNS, the 'telephone volume of the cyberspace'.
• TIM BERNERS-LEE (1955–)
Creator of the Globe Wide Web who adult many of the principles we still use today, such every bit HTML, HTTP, URLs and web browsers.
There was no "Eureka!" moment. Information technology was not like the legendary apple tree falling on Newton's caput to demonstrate the concept of gravity. Inventing the World Wide Web involved my growing realisation that at that place was a ability in arranging ideas in an unconstrained, weblike mode. And that awareness came to me through precisely that kind of process. The Web arose as the answer to an open challenge, through the swirling together of influences, ideas, and realisations from many sides.
—Tim Berners-Lee,Weaving the Spider web, 1999
• MARC ANDREESSEN (1971–)
Inventor of Mosaic, the start widely-used web browser.
The first utilize of a reckoner network
In 1965, Lawrence Roberts fabricated two separate computers in dissimilar places 'talk' to each other for the first time. This experimental link used a telephone line with an acoustically coupled modem, and transferred digital data using packets.
When the first packet-switching network was developed, Leonard Kleinrock was the first person to employ it to send a bulletin. He used a estimator at UCLA to send a message to a figurer at Stanford. Kleinrock tried to blazon 'login' but the system crashed subsequently the letters 'L' and 'O' had appeared on the Stanford monitor.
A second attempt proved successful and more messages were exchanged between the two sites. The ARPANET was born.
The life and death of the ARPANET
President Dwight D. Eisenhower formed the Avant-garde Enquiry Projects Agency (ARPA) in 1958, bringing together some of the best scientific minds in the country. Their aim was to help American military engineering science stay ahead of its enemies and prevent surprises, such as the launch of the satellite Sputnik 1, happening again. Amid ARPA'south projects was a remit to test the feasibility of a large-scale figurer network.
Lawrence Roberts was responsible for developing computer networks at ARPA, working with scientist Leonard Kleinrock. Roberts was the first person to connect 2 computers. When the start packet-switching network was adult in 1969, Kleinrock successfully used it to transport messages to some other site, and the ARPA Network—or ARPANET—was born.
In one case ARPANET was up and running, it quickly expanded. Past 1973, 30 academic, military and research institutions had joined the network, connecting locations including Hawaii, Norway and the Great britain.
As ARPANET grew, a prepare of rules for handling data packets needed to be put in place. In 1974, computer scientists Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf invented a new method called manual-control protocol, popularly known equally TCP/IP, which essentially allowed computers to speak the aforementioned linguistic communication.
After the introduction of TCP/IP, ARPANET speedily grew to get a global interconnected network of networks, or 'Net'.
The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990.
What is packet switching?
'Bundle switching' is a method of splitting and sending data. A computer file is effectively broken up into thousands of pocket-sized segments called 'packets'—each typically around 1500 bytes—distributed beyond a network, and then reordered back into a unmarried file at their destination. The bundle switching method is very reliable and allows data to be sent securely, even over damaged networks; it also uses bandwidth very efficiently and doesn't need a single dedicated link, like a phone call does.
The world's first packet-switching computer network was produced in 1969. Computers at four American universities were continued using separate minicomputers known as 'Interface Message Processors' or 'IMPs'. The IMPs acted every bit gateways for the packets and have since evolved into what we now phone call 'routers'.
Packet switching is the footing on which the cyberspace yet works today.
What is TCP/IP?
TCP/IP stands for Manual Command Protocol/Internet Protocol. The term is used to describe a prepare of protocols that govern how data moves through a network.
After the creation of ARPANET, more networks of computers began to join the network, and the demand arose for an agreed gear up of rules for handling data. In 1974 two American computer scientists, Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf, proposed a new method that involved sending data packets in a digital envelope or 'datagram'. The address on the datagram can be read by any computer, but only the final host auto can open the envelope and read the message within.
Kahn and Cerf chosen this method transmission-control protocol (TCP). TCP allowed computers to speak the same language, and it helped the ARPANET to abound into a global interconnected network of networks, an instance of 'internetworking'—internet for short.
IP stands for Internet Protocol and, when combined with TCP, helps cyberspace traffic find its destination. Every device connected to the internet is given a unique IP number. Known as an IP accost, the number can be used to notice the location of any internet-connected device in the globe.
What is DNS?
DNS stands for Domain Name System. Information technology is the internet's equivalent of a phone book, and converts difficult-to-remember IP addresses into unproblematic names.
In the early 1980s, cheaper technology and the appearance of desktop computers allowed the rapid development of local area networks (LANs). An increase in the amount of computers on the network made it difficult to keep track of all the different IP addresses.
This problem was solved by the introduction of the Domain Proper noun Organisation (DNS) in 1983. DNS was invented by Paul Mockapetris and Jon Postel at the University of Southern California. It was one of the innovations that paved the fashion for the World Broad Web.
The beginnings of email
Electronic mail was a rapid—but unintended—effect of the growth of ARPANET. As the network increased in popularity and telescopic, users quickly realised the potential of the network as a tool for sending messages between different ARPANET computers.
Ray Tomlinson, an American computer programmer, is responsible for e-mail as nosotros know it today. He introduced the idea that the destination of a message should be indicated using the @ symbol, which was first used to distinguish between the private user'south proper name and that of their computer (i.e. user@computer). When DNS was introduced, this was extended to user@host.domain.
Early on email users sent personal messages and began mailing lists on specific topics. One of the first big mailing lists was 'SF-LOVERS' for science fiction fans.
The development of email showed how the network had transformed. Rather than a way of accessing expensive computing power, it had started to become a place to communicate, gossip and make friends.
Early home computers
From the 1970s onwards, the home computer manufacture grew exponentially. The uptake of domicile computers was not necessarily driven by users' needs or a computer's functionality; early on machines could actually do relatively little. The appeal to the consumer was the idea of becoming part of the 'Information Revolution'. Computers were embedded with the rhetoric of the future and learning, but in most cases this meant learning to programme so that people could actually make the technology do something, such every bit play games.
The growth of the internet, 1985–95
The invention of DNS, the mutual employ of TCP/IP and the popularity of email caused an explosion of activity on the internet. Between 1986 and 1987, the network grew from ii,000 hosts to 30,000. People were now using the internet to send messages to each other, read news and swap files. Still, avant-garde knowledge of computing was still needed to dial in to the system and use it finer, and in that location was still no agreement on the way that documents on the network were formatted.
The internet needed to be easier to employ. An answer to the problem appeared in 1989 when a British figurer scientist named Tim Berners-Lee submitted a proposal to his employer, CERN, the international particle-enquiry laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland. Berners-Lee proposed a new style of structuring and linking all the information available on CERN's computer network that made it quick and like shooting fish in a barrel to access. His concept for a 'spider web of information' would ultimately get the Www.
The launch of the Mosaic browser in 1993 opened upward the web to a new audition of not-academics, and people started to discover how piece of cake information technology was to create their own HTML spider web pages. Consequently, the number of websites grew from 130 in 1993 to over 100,000 at the offset of 1996.
By 1995 the internet and the World Wide Web were established phenomena: Netscape Navigator, which was the nigh popular browser at the fourth dimension, had effectually 10 million global users.
How is the World wide web different from the internet?
The terms 'World wide web' and 'net' are often confused. The internet is the networking infrastructure that connects devices together, while the Globe Broad Web is a way of accessing information through the medium of the internet.
Tim Berners-Lee first proposed the idea of a 'spider web of information' in 1989. It relied on 'hyperlinks' to connect documents together. Written in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), a hyperlink can indicate to whatever other HTML page or file that sits on top of the internet.
In 1990, Berners-Lee adult Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and designed the Universal Resource Identifier (URI) system. HTTP is the linguistic communication computers use to communicate HTML documents over the cyberspace, and the URI, also known as a URL, provides a unique address where the pages tin can be hands institute.
Berners-Lee also created a slice of software that could present HTML documents in an easy-to-read format. He called this 'browser' the 'WorldWideWeb'.
On 6 August 1991 the code to create more web pages and the software to view them was fabricated freely available on the internet. Computer enthusiasts around the earth began setting up their own websites. Berners-Lee's vision of a free, global and shared data space began to take shape.
The dream behind the Web is of a common information space in which we communicate by sharing information. Its universality is essential: the fact that a hypertext link can point to anything, be information technology personal, local or global, be it draft or highly polished.
Tim Berners-Lee (1998)
The introduction of spider web browsers
Tim Berners-Lee was the get-go to create a piece of software that could present HTML documents in an easy-to-read format. He called this 'browser' the 'WorldWideWeb'. However, this original application had limited use as it could only be used on advanced NeXT machines. A simplified version that could run on any computer was created past Nicola Pellow, a maths student who worked alongside Berners-Lee at CERN.
In 1993, Marc Andreessen, an American student in Illinois, launched a new browser called Mosaic. Created at the National Center for Super-computing Applications (NCSA), Mosaic was piece of cake to download and install, worked on many different computers and provided simple point-and-click access to the Www. Mosaic was also the first browser to brandish images next to text, rather than in a separate window.
Mosaic'southward simplicity opened the web up to a new audience, and caused an explosion of activity on the cyberspace, with the number of websites growing from 130 in 1993 to over 100,000 at the start of 1996.
In 1994 Andreesen formed Netscape Communications with entrepreneur Jim Clark. They led the company to create Netscape Navigator, a widely used internet browser that at the time was faster and more than sophisticated than any of the contest. Past 1995, Navigator had around 10 million global users.
Early ecommerce and the 'dotcom chimera'
The enormous excitement surrounding the internet led to a massive boom in new engineering science shares between 1998 and 2000. This became known as the 'dotcom chimera'.
The claim was that world industry was experiencing a 'new economical epitome', the likes of which had never been experienced before. Investors in the stock market began to believe the hype and threw themselves into a frenzy of activity. The internet was idea to be central to economic growth, while share prices implied that new online companies carried the seeds for expansion. This led in turn to a feverish level of investment and unrealistic expectations nearly rates of return.
Nosotros take entered a menstruum of sustained growth that could eventually double the world's economy every dozen years and bring increasing prosperity for—quite literally—billions of people on the planet. We are riding the early waves of a 25-yr run of a greatly expanding economy that volition do much to solve seemingly intractable issues like poverty and to ease tensions throughout the world.
—Peter Schwartz and Peter Leyden,Wired, July 1997
Venture capitalists flourished and many companies were founded on dubious concern plans. The most notorious of these was the high fashion online retailer Boo.com, which spent its manner through $200 million, only to collapse inside 6 months of its website going live.
However, despite their failure, such businesses helped cause a cardinal transformation and left an important legacy. Many investors lost coin, but they also helped to finance the new system and lay the groundwork for futurity success in ecommerce.
Farther reading
Online
- Cursory History of the Internet, Internet Club
- Internet History 1962 to 1992, Reckoner History Museum
- Cyberspace Pioneers, ibiblio
- Tim Berners-Lee biography, World wide web Consortium
- The Globe Wide Web: A global data space, Science Museum
Books
- John Naughton,A Cursory History of the Future: The Origins of the Internet, 1999
- Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon,Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet, 1996
- Tim Berners-Lee,Weaving the Web, 1999
Source: https://www.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/short-history-internet
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